CE and RW acknowledge support

from WWF-Canada for compiling ship traffic and source level data. EA and RW acknowledge ongoing support from Marisla Foundation for incorporating noise into conservation and management EPZ5676 plans for killer whales and their critical habitat. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or conclusions of the manuscript. “
“The Arabian Gulf is of paramount economic importance in the world. The tremendous oil resources and their maritime transportations in the area have constantly drawn compelling attention. The Arabian Gulf is a shallow, semi-enclosed marginal sea, which is connected to the Gulf of Oman through the Strait of Hormuz in the east (Fig. 1). Its mean depth is ∼35 m, its length is ∼990 km, and its maximal width is 370 km. The Arabian

Gulf has asymmetric bathymetrical features along Pirfenidone mouse the main axis with a deeper zone off the Iranian coast and broad shallow shelf along the southern and western coasts from Kuwait to the United Arab Emirates (UAE). Additionally, the surrounding arid climate, in which evaporation surpasses the combination of precipitation and river runoff, results in hypersaline water mass production (Nezlin et al., 2010). These extreme conditions lead to an inverse estuarine circulation of cyclonic nature (Reynolds, 1993). The basin-scale circulation consists of two components. One current flows northwesterly from the Strait of Hormuz along the southern Iranian coast. The other one is a southeastern-flowing current in the southern Arabian Gulf (Reynolds, 1993). It flows out of the Arabian Gulf and spreads into the Gulf of Oman and the Arabian Sea at 200–300 m depth through the Strait of Hormuz (Prasad et al., 2001). The major rivers that empty into the Arabian Gulf are located in the north and from northwest with an average discharge rate of 36–1000 km3 year−1 (Reynolds, 1993). The maximum river discharge was recorded in late spring-early summer (Nezlin et al., 2010). The precipitation over the Arabian Gulf area is very low at a rate of 0.07–0.1 m year−1 (Marcella and Eltahir, 2008). Evaporation exceeds combined rainfall and

freshwater discharge, which results in high salinity up to 44.3‰ (Jacob and Al-Muzaini, 1990). In addition to the high salinity, the Arabian Gulf is one of the warmest water bodies on earth with water temperature reaching 32 °C during the summer (ROPME, 1999). Other special characteristic of the Arabian Gulf region is its high aerosol concentration. Dust storms occur frequently in the gulf area, mainly in May–July, when dust deposition can amount to over 30 g m−2 (Subba Rao and Al-Yamani, 1999). Red tide, also known as harmful algal bloom, is caused by proliferation of a toxic or nuisance algae species and has been a pre-eminent topic of world-wide research communities for several decades (Cullen et al., 1997, Kahru et al., 2000, Stumpf et al.

e., focus on subject or object) during processing of sentences with varying word order from previous studies (e.g., Bornkessel et al., 2003 and Meng et al., 1999). Thus, absence of an N400 modulation in our study might be due to the fact that both characters of the scene were previously

mentioned in the lead-in context, and thus equally expected and accessible in the mental model. This is in line with Burkhardt and Roehm (2007), who argue that both entities within a coordinated noun phrase –in our experimental design the two animals in the lead-in (e.g., the owl and the hedgehog)– evoke the same representational status in terms of accessibility or saliency Bleomycin in the mental model. In the framework of the SDM, our design was effective in the modulation of costs for updating the current discourse model (late positivity, see above) but not for expectancy-based discourse linking processes (N400). Notably, in the topic condition, the topic of the context-question (e.g., What about the owl?) was directly repeated at the sentence initial position

of the target sentence (SO and OS sentences), whereas such a repetition was not present in the target sentence following the neutral context (e.g., What exactly is going on?). Accordingly, the context type in our study revealed a selleck chemical broadly distributed early positive peak time-locked to the onset of the target sentence independent of its word order. As the topic context induced a reduction of this early positivity relative to the neutral context, we suggest that this context effect might be confounded with basic processes of information encoding due to word repetition in one but not the other context. The early positivity we found showed Vitamin B12 a similar peak and latency pattern as the positivity around

200 ms (c.f., P200) for which mixed results regarding its functional nature are reported in dependence on the experimental paradigm (e.g., Coulson et al., 2005, Federmeier and Kutas, 2001 and Friedrich and Kotz, 2007). As early modulations of ERPs, such as the P200, have commonly been associated with processes of basic information encoding (for visual stimuli see for instance Dunn et al., 1998, Evans and Federmeier, 2007 and Luck and Hillyard, 1994), we propose an interpretation of the reduced early positivity for repeated words in the topic condition in terms of a word repetition effect. Note that so far contradictory results have been reported with regard to amplitude and latency of ERPs elicited by word repetition: On the one hand side, some studies did not find a reduced but instead an enhanced early positivity for repeated words (see e.g., van Petten, Kutas, Kluender, Mitchiner, & McIsaac, 1991). However, in line with our data, a reduced early positivity for repeated words was found in word lists (e.g., Nagy and Rugg, 1989 and Rugg, 1985).

americanus [30]. While C-terminally truncated versions of full-length H. americanus orcokinin-family peptides, including Orc[1-12] and Orc[1-11] ( Fig. 2A), detected in XO/MT extract ( Fig. 3C) and direct tissue ( Fig. 3A and B) spectrum, have been also been reported by our laboratory [10] and by other researchers [4], [6], [10], [27] and [40], the alanine-containing peptide

sequence is unusual because an alanine residue at this position is not known for any full-length orcokinins detected mass spectrometrically or predicted from genomic information. When we analyzed the extract from an entire eyestalk ganglion, we again detected peaks for the m/z 1270.57, putative Orc[Ala11], peptide (see Fig. 3D). To ensure that the detection of this peptide was not the result of a mutation specific to the individual animal analyzed, localized tissue samples and entire eyestalk ganglia from additional individuals RO4929097 clinical trial (n > 30) were extracted. Although the abundance

of the m/z 1270.57 and other putative Orc[Ala11]-derived peaks varied relative to that of other detected peptides, signals for this peptide were consistently observed, except in extracted sinus gland samples, where these signals were weak or missing. To further characterize the amino acid sequence of the peptide appearing at m  /z   1270.57, we subjected the peak to analysis by SORI-CID, the form of MS/MS used on our FTMS instrument. Isolation of the [M+H]+ Angiogenesis inhibitor at m  /z   1270.57 from an eyestalk ganglion extract followed by SORI-CID yielded a spectrum showing an abundant peak at m  /z   1253.54 (loss of NH3) and the production of y-type sequence

ions, including the Asp-Xxx cleavage products at y8, y8o, and y5 (m/z 894.43, 876.42, and 537.28, respectively; see Fig. 4A). This experiment provided support for our assignment of the m/z 1270.57 peak as an ionized orcokinin family peptide and, furthermore, supported our attribution of the m/z 1253.54, 894.43, 876.42, and 537.28 peaks in the MALDI-FT mass spectrum of tissue extracts to this gas-phase precursor. However, the SORI-CID mass spectrum did not provide sufficient information to establish the full amino acid sequence. In previous studies [43], we have shown that the variable C-terminal Liothyronine Sodium sequence of orcokinin-family peptides can be established by using the mass spectrometric isolation and dissociation of the yn+1 fragment by SORI-CID. The yn+1 fragment, produced via Asp-Xxx cleavage, contains the arginine (R) residue at the N-terminus and yields b-type sequence ions, which retain the N-terminal, arginine-containing, end of the peptide sequence. When the y5 peak at m/z 537 was isolated and subjected to SORI-CID interrogation, we measured peaks, including b1, b2-NH3, b3, and b4 at m/z 157.11, 227.11, 301.16, and 448.23, respectively, that are consistent with the sequence RSGF ( Fig. 5A). Other peaks in the spectrum (m/z 472.23, 489.26, 502.24) resulted from combinations of small neutral molecule losses (NH3, H2O, and CH2O).

These are chemical substances with strong toxic, mutagenic, neurotoxic, nephrotoxic and carcinogenic effects ( Karl-Otto, 2008 and Rywotycki, 2002). These potential risks make the reduction or elimination of nitrite in foods desirable. According to Brazilian legislation for additives and preservatives in meat products, the maximal concentration of sodium or potassium nitrite, with or without nitrate, should not exceed 150 mg/kg or 0.015% in the final product ( Brazil, 2009). Reducing nitrite in meat emulsions, however, can lead to fat auto-oxidation, a major deteriorative reaction that results in off flavors and color alteration. In a complex sequence of selleck chemicals chemical changes, this process

promotes the formation of compounds that react easily with oxygen; the production of these highly reactive compounds can be delayed by adding antioxidants. However, when lipid oxidation occurs, hemepigments (myoglobin and hemoglobin) also oxidize in a coupled lipid-pigment reaction, which results in a color change (Hernández-Hernández, Ponce-Alquicira, Jaramillo-Flores, Apoptosis Compound Library manufacturer & Guerrero Legarreta, 2009). Various synthetic antioxidants, such as BHA, BHT, TBHQ, are used in the food industry to inhibit lipid oxidation. However, their use has

been restricted because of possible health risks and toxicity. Consumers increasingly demand natural products as alternative preservatives in foods because the safety of synthetic additives has been questioned in the last few years. Alternative preservation techniques using naturally derived ingredients are being investigated for their application in food products. Due to negative consumer perceptions of artificial preservatives, attention is shifting toward alternatives that

consumers perceive as natural, including essential oils (EOs) and essences of plant extracts. MycoClean Mycoplasma Removal Kit In particular, plant EOs are attracting interest as potential preservatives because they are generally recognized as safe (GRAS) and have a wide acceptance from consumers (Burt, 2004, Gutierrez et al., 2009 and Smith-Palmer et al., 1998). The use of natural additives has attracted attention, and some authors report that natural compounds have antioxidant capabilities similar to or better than synthetic preservatives. EOs are volatile, natural and complex compounds that are characterized by a strong odor. They are formed by aromatic plants as secondary metabolites. In addition to their use as flavoring agents in foods, EOs exhibit antibacterial, antifungal and antioxidant properties (Bakkali, Averbeck, Averbeck, & Idaomar, 2008). Satureja montana L., commonly known as winter savory or mountain savory, belongs to the Lamiaceae family, Nepetoideae subfamily and Mentheae tribe. It is a perennial semi-shrub (20–30 cm in height) that inhabits arid, sunny and rocky regions. S. montana L.

We chose a fixed, rectangular region of interest (ROI) that in all images corresponded to 106 pixels. The injury site was always represented inside this ROI by manually placing the box in the correct position on each image. The aniline blue-positive

pixels were partially automated by using the magic wand tool set to a color tolerance of 60. This tolerance setting resulted in highlighted pixels with a range of blue that corresponded precisely with the histological appearance of osseous tissue in the aniline blue-stained sections. Native bone or bone fragments resulting from the drill injury were manually deselected. The total number of aniline blue-positive see more pixels for each section was recorded. The pixel counts from individual sections were averaged for each sample, and the differences within and among treatment groups were calculated based on these averages. Results are presented as the mean ± SEM. Student’s t-test was used to quantify differences described in this article. P ≤ 0.01 was considered to be significant. The skeleton contains

tissue-resident stem cells that are responsible for maintaining bone mass [22] and for regenerating new bone following injury [23]. By genetic cell lineage labeling studies [24], selleck products we established that adult skeletal stem cells arise from the cranial neural crest and the mesoderm [23]. Although both stem cell populations give rise to cartilage and bone, they do not appear to be functionally equivalent: Neural crest-derived skeletal progenitor cells, which occupy the first branchial arch (Figs. 1A,B) and give rise to the bones and cartilages of the upper and lower jaws (Figs. 1C–F) exhibit robust plasticity compared to mesoderm-derived progenitor cells, most notably in bone grafting assays [25]. Our initial hypothesis was that implant osseointegration in the tibia would be equivalent to implant osseointegration in the maxilla. Since the two bones are derived

from different embryonic stem cell populations, however, we directly tested the healing potentials of the tibia compared to the maxilla. We employed a simple bone defect model in which a 1.0 mm hole was created in a mesoderm-derived long bone, the tibia, or a neural crest-derived cranial bone, the maxilla (Figs. 1G,H). The surrounding cortices were left intact, which minimized micromotion of the injured bones. There was no obvious difference in the histologic Morin Hydrate appearance of the injury sites within the first few days of creating the defects (Fig. 1H and data not shown). By post-injury day 14, however, there was a clear distinction: tibial injuries were filled with newly woven bone that occupied the marrow cavity and bridged the defect (Fig. 1I). In contrast, a similar injury in the maxilla was filled with a fibrous connective tissue (Fig. 1J). Even if we reduced the diameter of the maxillary defects (compare 1.0 mm in the tibia with 0.5 in the maxilla), the maxillary injuries did not heal by day 14.

This project was the first phase of a study that seeks to assess and integrate the advice provided to Environment Canada on potential changes to their DM DaS regulatory framework at a 2006 workshop on DM management and since that time. We developed a database of North American coastal and estuarine sediment contaminant levels, and applied a range of potential chemical assessment protocols to it, and drew conclusions about the potential changes in regulatory outcomes from changes in the Canadian DM DaS Chemical Protocols summarized in Agius and Porebski (2008). The first 2006 selleck chemicals llc workshop recommendation was that EC consider the inclusion

of a broader suite of metals (or even a full metal scan) rather than just Cd and Hg, in Tier 1 assessments. Although this review only evaluated the effects of the addition of metals addressed in other DM programs rather than a full scan, study results indicated that the current DaS protocol has the potential to miss a significant number of samples that are

potentially affected by metal contamination. Using mined datasets, the two metals (Cd and Hg) currently considered failed to serve as sentinel analytes Quizartinib supplier that captured other metal-contaminated sediments. Including other metals in the DaS chemical action list would likely improve the overall detection of metal-contaminated sediments. The precise SQG levels for currently used and potential new analytes do not appear to have nearly as much influence on the conservatism of regulatory outcomes as the

list of analytes itself. Therefore, the decision to add metals to the list of analytes would be immediately beneficial to the DaS program’s decision making ability. A review of the appropriate SQG levels might also be considered Niclosamide but as a lower priority. However, if such a review is carried out, it will be important to ensure that SQGs considered have been developed using sample preparation, extraction and analytical methods that are compatible with the DaS protocols. Whilst a final selection of LAL and UAL levels will be a policy decision, we recommend that the implications of these differences are reviewed in due course. Although there are strong arguments for greater conservatism at LAL levels and less conservatism at UAL levels, these choices also have cost implications for applicants, and may affect applicant behavior as well as environmental outcomes. Given their performance relative to other SQGs in this study, the DaS program could consider the use of consensus SQGs as a starting point. The second workshop recommendation was that EC consider the expansion of the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) examined in Tier 1 from the 16 parent compounds to include a focus on the more persistent and toxic alkylated PAHs, which are often present at higher concentrations.

5% formaldehyde solution and stained with ammoniacal silver nitrate solution [0.15% (w/v) silver nitrate, 0.05% (w/v) sodium hydroxide and 2.5% (v/v) ammonium hydroxide]. SDS-PAGE analysis Ganetespib datasheet comparing egg proteins from E. tuberculatum queens and workers showed differences

between the castes. The eggs of the workers contained two major proteins with molecular weights of 31 and 156 kDa, while the eggs of queens had eight major proteins, four of which (31, 36, 123, and 156 kDa) appeared with greater intensity than the others (81, 86, 96, and 101 kDa) ( Fig. 1). Haemolymph samples from workers of different ages displayed different protein patterns. Proteins with MWs of 43, 84, 89, and 195 kDa occurred in samples from workers of all ages (Fig. 1). The haemolymph of workers aged 2 and 5 days had a 120 kDa protein that was not found in workers of other ages. Haemolymph from workers with 10 days of age showed small quantities of the proteins of MWs 31 and 156 kDa present in worker oocytes (Fig. 1). These proteins also appeared in the haemolymph of workers aged 15,

20, 30, and 60 days. From the age of 20 days, all ants expressed the proteins of 38, 71, and 135 kDa. selleck chemicals llc Workers 100 days of age did not show the proteins of 31 and 156 kDa (Fig. 1). In the haemolymph of queens, proteins of 85, 135, 156 and 195 kDa appeared in greater quantity, while the 31 and 43 kDa proteins were slightly detected (Fig. 1). To verify the presence of vitellogenin in ants of different ages, the two most abundant proteins in eggs of queens (Fig. 1) were isolated and used to immunize rabbits for antibody production. The antibodies obtained to proteins of 123 and 156 kDa were termed vg1 and vg2, respectively. Immunolocalization tests were performed to provide indirect evidence that the isolated proteins may correspond to vitellogenin. Immunohistochemistry (Fig. 2A–C) and immunofluorescence (Fig. 2D–F) showed positive reactions for antibodies vg1 and vg2 in fat body cells and oocytes. The fat body was characterized by large cells

that had a central nucleus Montelukast Sodium and many vacuoles (Fig. 2A–C). The immunostained granules were found around these vacuoles and were clustered at the cell periphery (Fig. 2A and B). In the oocytes, the positive granules were observed throughout the ooplasm (Fig. 2E). The antibodies vg1 and vg2 were used in Western blot analysis of egg extracts from queens and workers, while the haemolymph samples were analyzed using only the vg2 antibody. The analysis showed that both antibodies reacted positively to the proteins of 123 and 156 kDa and also for smaller unspecific fragmentation products (Fig. 3). Analysis of the haemolymph showed a positive reaction to a protein of 156 kDa in samples from queens and workers aged 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, and 60 days (Fig. 4). An increase in the intensity of the reaction was obtained in samples from workers aged 20 and 30 days.

Additionally, the ratio of the C2 and C3 alkyl dibenzothiophenes to phenanthrenes were sometimes compared for consistency click here with the MC252 source oil. It is well established that oil biomarkers provide chemical fingerprinting information that can be used to distinguish one oil from another, even oils with similar geographic origins. We recognize, however, that some Louisiana Sweet Crudes (LSC) have very similar biomarker profiles and could potentially be

mis-identified as MC252 oil. Only one LSC, however, was spilled in massive quantities and reached the sampled areas in 2010. Samples of coastal marsh sediments collected in spring 2010 (pre-spill) established that there was not significant evidence of widespread oil contamination before the DWH disaster. It is important to

point out that oil residues from oil spills are very heterogeneously distributed. Some samples taken post-coastal oiling from visually impacted areas did not have the typical unresolved complex mixtures (UCM) indicative of oil contamination, while others had a very significant amount of UCMs. Furthermore, the biomarker profiles for samples with oil contamination were very similar to the biomarker profiles in the MC252 oil, and only the MC252 oil was PD0332991 concentration spilled in significant amounts at that time or since. Given the facts that biomarker profiles were very similar to MC252 oil and a significant UCM was present, most if not all of the residues were interpreted to be from the DWH disaster and not from other LSC oil wells. The multi-agency damage assessment operations employed the Shoreline Cleanup Assessment Technique (SCAT) during

the active portion of the spill defined five levels of oil exposure (Michel et al., 2013). The SCAT oiling categories were based on visual field inspection, usually from a boat, to assess the width of the oiled marsh, the percent vegetative cover Baricitinib that was oiled, and the oil thickness. We matched these color-coded categories of oiling from the SCAT surveys (red, orange, yellow, green and blue; heavy, moderate, light, very light, and trace, respectively) (http://gomex.erma.noaa.gov/erma.html#x=-89.88671&y=29.50386&z=12&layers=10012) with the contemporaneous estimated concentration of alkanes (mg kg−1) and aromatics (μg kg−1) for September 2010 and February 2011. We calculated the average water level at Grand Isle, LA, using data from NOAA tide gage 8761724 at Grand Isle, LA. The water levels are daily means calculated from the hourly values which are referenced to the local water level gage datum. The Mean Sea Level at the gage is 2.015 meters. Concurrent water levels measured on the marsh surface during sampling trips were compared to the recorded values at gage 8761724 to estimate marsh level. The concentration values below the detection limit were defined as ‘zero’ values.

Samples of soil were air dried for 7–14 days after which aggregate size distribution was determined by gently sieving a 25 g homogenised check details sub-sample through nine sieves: 4000, 2000, 1000, 500, 425, 300, 212, 106 and 53 μm. The mass retained on each sieve was weighed, recorded and the percentage mass in each fraction calculated. From aggregate size distributions, the coefficient of uniformity (Kézdi 1974) was used to numerically illustrate the differences in distributions where large and small aggregates co-existed. Aggregate stability was determined by the fast wetting (slaking) technique developed by Le Bissonnais (1996) and expressed

as mean weight diameter (MWD). Aggregate hydraulic properties were measured by a miniaturised infiltrometer (Leeds-Harrison et al., 1994 and Hallett and Young, 1999). Further sub-samples of the air dried soil SB431542 solubility dmso were sieved to 2–5 mm,

prior to oven drying at 40 °C for 24 h. The infiltration device was constructed with capillary tubing, glass tubing (3.5 mm internal diameter) and a 200 μl pipette tip. In order to assess the hydraulic conductivity, the sorptivity of water flowing into soil aggregates at five different heads of water was measured (0, −10, −20, −30 and −40 mm). Water repellency (R) was determined through measurements of the ethanol (Se) and water sorptivity (Sw) at the −20 mm head. Ethanol infiltration is not affected by hydrophobic substances and hence isolates the influence of the pore structure on wetability. Amino acid The repellency index (R) of individual aggregates was calculated from: R=1.95SeSwwith the constant accounting for the differences in surface

tension and viscosity. Soil structural analysis was undertaken non-destructively using a Venlo H series, X-ray CT Scanner (H 350/225 CT; X-TEK, Tring, Hertfordshire, UK). A 2 mm primary copper filter was placed near the X-ray source to eliminate X-ray scatter, in addition to a 4 mm secondary copper filter placed at the detector to prevent detector saturation (i.e. when the input to the detector exceeds the total capacity) and beam hardening (Taina et al. 2008). Gain and offset correction was applied to all of the diodes within the detector by applying a black (offset) and white (gain) reference to adjust for exposure variations. Macrocosms were scanned at 175 kV and 3 μA, with an exposure time of 90 ms. The samples were placed 145 mm away from the detector and scanned to collect a single image at 6 pre-determined depths according to each particular experimental layout. Images were processed using AnalySIS® (Soft Imaging Systems (SIS), Münster, Germany) to segment pore space. The image resolution was 65.4 μm pixel−1. Initial images were cropped to 52.97 mm × 50.69 mm (810 pixel × 775 pixel), to remove the sides of the macrocosm from the image, in addition to boundary effects such as cracks that occasionally ran down the edges of the macrocosm.

The distributions of halocarbons in the Amundsen and Ross Seas are mainly influenced by the presence of sea ice. This is supported by several findings: EPZ5676 ic50 halocarbon concentrations in surface waters in ice-covered areas exceeded those of the biologically productive surface layer in the two polynyas; elevated concentrations of halocarbons were measured in brine; and surface waters in open waters were under-saturated with respect to bromoform. The halocarbon distribution in the two seas differed considerably, mainly due to the large

Ross Sea polynya and the formation of high salinity shelf water in the western Ross Sea. Halocarbons were found not to be a homogenous group of compounds, and they could be divided into two groups depending on the halogen involved. Iodinated compounds, with relatively shorter environmental half-lives in sea water, could be related to the abundance of Phaeocystis in the Ross Sea, whereas

brominated forms may be related more to community processes in conjunction with the unique physical environment provided by ice and snow. Saturation anomalies for the sea water/air and ice/brine/air systems also showed that sea ice was a major source of naturally produced halocarbons for the atmosphere, and in particular CHBr3 and CH2ClI. It can be concluded that the surface mixed layer of Antarctic seas acts both as a source and a sink for volatile halogenated organic carbons. The following are the supplementary data related to this article. Supplementary material.   Incubation data from 7 ice stations and absolute limit of detection. We thank the officers and crew of buy Entinostat the R.V.I.B. Oden for their help during the cruise, as well as our OSO 2007 colleagues. We especially thank Daniel Barrdahl for assistance during the expedition. This research was supported by NSF grants ANT-0741380 and ANT-0836112 to

WOS, the Swedish Research Council, Knut och Alice Wallenbergs Foundation, and the Swedish Polar Research Secretariat. Section plots were made in Ocean Data View ( Schlitzer, 2011). “
“Due to its biological necessity, iron (Fe) is a key resource for marine phytoplankton (Geider and La Roche, 1994) and is considered as the limiting nutrient in a number of oceanic regions (Moore et al., 2013). These include the classic from high nutrient low chlorophyll regions of the Southern Ocean (de Baar et al., 1995), equatorial Pacific (Martin et al., 1994), sub-Arctic Pacific (Martin and Fitzwater, 1988) and to a lesser extent seasonally in the North Atlantic (Nielsdóttir et al., 2009). Moreover, Fe can also regulate the rates of nitrogen fixation by diazotrophs in tropical regions (Schlosser et al., 2014). Accordingly most ocean general circulation and biogeochemistry models (OGCBMs) that seek to represent ocean biogeochemical cycling, including those concerned with climate change, represent Fe. The process of organic complexation by molecules known as ligands is a key feature of the ocean Fe cycle.