This suggests that at least for the variables most important for ocean carbon exchange, i.e., wind speeds, SST, and ice, the reanalysis products are either in general agreement, or that the differences among them are relatively unimportant

at the largest spatial scales. This finding is emphatically not true for regional analyses, where large differences in FCO2 are observed depending upon the reanalysis product used for forcing. pCO2 distributions are considerably less sensitive to the choice of reanalysis product. These findings have important implications for ocean modelers in choosing reanalysis products: namely that for global models it does not matter much, but for regional and local check details model the selection can have important influences on carbon cycling and exchange estimates. this website The finding that different estimates of air–sea fluxes are produced by different reanalyses at regional scales reinforces the work by Otero et al. (2013), who used different reanalysis sources in the Bay of Biscay. Several other ocean carbon modeling efforts have utilized versions of NCEP forcing

data (e.g., Le Quéré et al., 2010, Doney et al., 2009 and McKinley et al., 2004). This effort provides a milepost for evaluating the use of different reanalysis forcing products for ocean carbon models, at least in a general sense. The overarching conclusion, i.e., that global estimate of carbon fluxes and pCO2 are insensitive to the choice of forcing is likely robust. Similarly the other conclusions that regionally and sub-regionally the choice of reanalysis has

successively more influence, is also likely to apply to other models as well. However the nature of the differences and sensitivities is likely to be different. The difference will be dependent upon Protein kinase N1 the nature of the model formulation, but we hope the results provided here will be of help in the selection and use of reanalysis products for global and regional ocean carbon models. We thank the NASA/MERRA Project, the NOAA/NCEP Project and the ECMWF Project for the data sets and public availability. We also thank the Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory for in situ pCO2 data and flux estimates. We thank three anonymous reviewers for insights. This work was supported by NASA Modeling and Analysis Program (MAP) and Carbon Monitoring System (CMS) Programs. “
“The bias of an estimator is formally defined as the difference between its expected value and the true value it is trying to estimate (e.g., Priestley, 1981). In the context of environmental modeling, biases are often approximated by the mean difference between simulated and observed quantities after averaging over certain temporal or spatial scales (e.g., WMO, 2008). Biases are a common problem in many environmental models (e.g., Randall et al.

Diese Bindungseigenschaften tragen zu der mehr oder weniger gleichförmigen Verteilung im Körper bei, die nach langfristiger Exposition beobachtet wird. Chelatbildner, die im Zusammenhang mit Quecksilberverbindungen klinisch von Nutzen sein können, enthalten Epacadostat eine oder zwei SH-Gruppen. Wie bereits erwähnt

hat Quecksilber eine hohe Affinität für SH-Gruppen, so dass eine schnelle Umverteilung erfolgt, wenn neue SH-Gruppen verfügbar werden. Daher ist die Wirksamkeit eines SH-Chelatbildners abhängig von den Bindungseigenschaften des Chelatbildners im Vergleich zu denen der gleichzeitig anwesenden biologischen SH-Gruppen. Soll sich ein Chelatbildner für die klinische Anwendung eignen, muss er wasserlöslich sein, damit eine Ausscheidung über den Urin möglich ist. Wenn der Komplex fettlöslich ist, kann dies zu einer Umverteilung von Quecksilber führen, die dem Patienten nicht zuträglich ist. Der mögliche Einsatz von Chelatbildnern

zur Behandlung von Quecksilbervergiftungen wurde kürzlich in einem Review von Guzzi und La Porta diskutiert [43]. Das von der WHO [10] für Patienten mit einer Vergiftung durch buy Tacrolimus anorganisches Quecksilber vorgeschlagene Mittel der ersten Wahl ist DMPS (2,3-Dimercapto-1-propansulfonsäure). Weitere Chelatbildner, die klinisch genutzt werden können, sind DMSA (2,3-Dimercaptobernsteinsäure), D-Penicillamin, Dimercaprol und NAC (N-Acetylcystein). Der Nutzen von DMSA ist angezweifelt worden, da diese Verbindung die zelluläre

Aufnahme von MeHg steigern kann. Allerdings führt dies nicht zu Schäden, was anhand von intakten Mikrotubuli nachgewiesen werden konnte [65]. Selen (Se) ist ein essenzielles Spurenelement, von dem bekannt ist, dass es toxische Effekte von MeHg abschwächt oder sogar verhindert [66] and [67]. Die Bindungsaffinität Teicoplanin von Se für Quecksilber (logK 1045) ist eine Million Mal höher als seine Affinität für Schwefel (logK 1039) in analogen Verbindungen [68]. In einigen Studien wurde gezeigt, dass Se bei Quecksilbervergiftungen eine schützende Wirkung hat, die auf verschiedenen Mechanismen beruht: • Bindung von Hg [69] and [70], Darüber hinaus scheint keine toxische Wirkung von MeHg aufzutreten, wenn Se in Geweben im Vergleich zu Hg in molarem Überschuss vorliegt [75]. Daten von Ralston und Raymond zeigen, dass die Purkinje-Zellen im Cerebellum und die Pyramidenzellen im Hippocampus hohe Konzentrationen von Selenoprotein W enthalten [77]. Eine hohe Konzentration an Selenoproteinen kann als intrazelluläre Quelle für Se dienen, das nach einer Intoxikation durch MeHg wiederum zur Bindung von Quecksilber beitragen und so in Purkinje-Zellen eine schützende Wirkung entfalten kann.

ii) None of the elemental XRF maps show a homogeneous distribution within the bone tissue. iii) Zn exhibits a remarkable increase in the cement lines and at the borders to the haversian channels (this region was not evaluated). Zn intensities appear to be rather constant in the mineralized bone matrix. This accumulation of Zn in the cement lines is shown in Fig. 3b. The numerous parallel cement lines seen in the qBEI image correspond with bands of high Zn-Kα intensities in μ-XRF map. iv) Pb also accumulates in the cement lines and in the borders to the haversian channels (this region was not evaluated). Moreover Pb shows a strong correlation

to the Ca-content in the mineralized bone matrix. Thus, the central young osteon with low mineralization and therefore low Ca content has a very low Pb content that even the detection limit of the Alpelisib purchase SR-μ-XRF method is reached. In Fig. 3b the Pb levels of the bone samples are so low that the Pb maps exhibit only a noise signal. v) The behavior of Sr distribution is different from Zn and Pb. There is no accumulation at cement lines and haversian channel borders. However

there are distinctly visible differences between the mineralized Gefitinib nmr bone matrix of the various osteons. In all investigated samples we found significantly higher Zn and Pb intensities in the cement lines compared to the mineralized bone matrix (Fig. 4) (p < 0.05 for each individual sample). Even in the sample, which had the lowest Pb level (shown in Fig. 3b), a significantly higher Pb content in the cement lines could be found. There was a large interindividual variation in Zn and Pb XRF intensities of mineralized bone matrix and cement lines (Fig. 4). When analyzing the cement line to mineralized

bone matrix ratios for Zn and Pb (Fig. 5) of all samples we found the following: i) Zn content was in median 1.3 times higher Ribonucleotide reductase (lower quartile: 1.2; upper quartile: 1.4; p < 0.05) in cement line than in mineralized bone matrix; ii) Pb levels were in median 2.0 times higher (lower quartile: 1.5; upper quartile: 2.5; p < 0.05) in the cement line than in mineralized bone matrix; in one sample Pb was 3.8 times increased compared to the mineralized bone matrix (Fig. 5). Thus, we found greater interindividual differences for Pb than for Zn. In contrast, Sr intensities were not significantly changed between mineralized bone matrix and cement lines. The correlation of Ca content and trace element levels was evaluated using data obtained from all mineralized bone matrix ROIs (yellow labeled regions in Fig. 2) of all samples. Diagrams showing the relationships of Zn, Pb and Sr to the Ca content are presented in Fig. 6. No correlations between Zn and Ca levels were found, while Pb and Sr showed a non-linear increase with the degree of mineralization, which was significant (p < 0.001; Spearman’s rank correlation test).

Eleven healthy, right-handed male volunteers with normal body weight [age, 27.2±9.6 years; height, 170.5±4.7 cm; body weight, 65.7±8.2 kg; body mass index (BMI), 22.6±2.1 kg/m2 (mean±SD)] were enrolled. Current smokers were excluded because their smoking

habit is known to be associated with eating behaviors (Bruijnzeel, 2012 and Naqvi and Bechara, 2010) and it might disturb the brain activities related to appetitive responsiveness. Participants with a history of mental or neurological disorder were excluded because these disorders might affect their subjective appetitive motives assessed by PFS and brain activities assessed by MEG. And Dabrafenib concentration participants taking chronic medications that affect the central nervous system were also excluded. The protocol was approved by the Ethics Committee of Osaka City University, and all the participants gave written

informed consent to participate in the study. Experiments were conducted in a quiet, temperature-controlled and magnetically shielded room at Osaka City University Hospital. Each participant was asked to visit to the laboratory on two separate days. One day was for the experiment of the Fasting condition and the other day was for that of ‘Hara-Hachibu’ condition, and the Obeticholic Acid research buy order of the two days was randomly assigned for each participant (Fig. 5A). For one day before each visit, they were instructed to finish dinner by 9:00 p.m. and to fast overnight (they were only allowed to have water), to avoid intensive physical and mental activity, and to maintain normal sleeping

hours. After the visit assigned to Fasting condition, they were asked to rate their subjective level of hunger on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (Yes, I am very hungry) to 5 (No, I am not hungry at all). Immediately after the rating, we started MEG recordings. On the day of ‘Hara-Hachibu’ condition, they consumed rice balls as much as they judged themselves to have consumed shortly before reaching satiety (so that they still had motivation to eat). Then, they were asked to reply to the same 5-point Likert-type scale just before the MEG recordings. The amount (g) of consumed rice balls was measured. The MEG examination consisted of two food sessions and two control sessions in an alternating and counterbalanced Olopatadine order ( Fig. 5B). Pictures of food items were presented as visual stimuli during the food sessions. In addition, the mosaic pictures created from the same pictures of food items were used as visual stimuli during the control sessions. The rationale for using mosaic pictures of the same food items was to examine the brain activities evoked by visual stimuli with properties similar to the original food images in the condition where participants were not motivated. Mosaic pictures were made using commercial software (Adobe Photoshop Elements 6.0, Adobe Systems Inc.

4b), apparently due to a lower proportion of Omipalisib research buy adult females in this area (Bodkin et al., 2002). Although many otters from NKI have been radio-tagged since the spill, no studies have reported unusually high mortality there, and since the months after the spill, no dead otters have been recovered for which mortality was attributed directly or indirectly to oil contamination. Secondly, SKI and NKI showed parallel population dynamics despite dramatically different oiling levels (Fig. 4a). Thirdly, instead of slowly recovering over time, otter numbers at NKI dropped sharply after

2001 (Fig. 3b), coinciding with an abrupt decline in numbers at unoiled Montague Island (Fig. 3a). That same year investigators discovered more buried oil persisting on shorelines of WPWS than was previously thought (Short et al., 2004), suggesting a possible pathway for continued contamination of otters digging in the intertidal zone, but no explanation for why otter numbers would decline so suddenly (along both oiled and unoiled shorelines) 12 years

after the spill. Short et al. (2006, p. 3728), who investigated the distribution of subsurface oil residues on shorelines at NKI, suggested that otters digging for clams in this region would “encounter lingering Exxon Valdez oil repeatedly during the course of a year,” perhaps at least once every 2 months, and concluded that this frequency of encounter would be sufficient to affect their health and thus hamper population growth. Sirolimus research buy Neff et al. (2011) pointed out, however, that Short’s estimate assumed that otters dig for clams everywhere along the shoreline and that oil residues occur evenly across all shoreline substrates – neither of which is correct. Otters dig for clams in perpetually-wet sandy or gravel beaches in the lower intertidal zone, whereas remaining www.selleck.co.jp/products/Etopophos.html oil residues are sequestered in small pockets in mid- and upper tide zones behind boulders or under cobble, protected from wave and storm action ( Neff et al., 2011). Indeed, the protection afforded by this substrate is the very reason that some oil remained in the environment.

Clams are generally not found in this type of habitat, and otters do not (and cannot) dig there. When otters dig for clams, they leave pits in the substrate, which may last for many months and are readily visible along shorelines at low tide. Boehm et al., 2007 and Boehm et al., 2011 and Neff et al. (2011) found that foraging pits along NKI shorelines in 2006 were distinctly separated by habitat and tidal zone from pockets of subsurface oil residues that existed within the intertidal zone, suggesting that foraging otters would rarely encounter oil. These results spurred a further investigation by Bodkin et al. (2012), who searched soft-sediment beaches in 2008 and found more otter pits in the mid-intertidal zone than Boehm et al. did along all shoreline types in NKI. Bodkin et al. also found traces of oil in or near some otter pits.

Our conjecture is that the prior processing of the probe word in a helpful semantic context primed appropriate aspects of knowledge required for the semantic judgement, reducing executive demands.

The reduction of IFG activation in this condition is reminiscent of adaptation effects frequently observed in IFG when the same stimuli are repeatedly presented in semantic tasks (Raichle et al., 1994 and Thompson-Schill et al., 1999). Such results have typically been interpreted as indicating reduced need for executive regulation when the relevant semantic information has already been retrieved previously (Fletcher et al., 2000 and Thompson-Schill et al., 1999). Importantly, these adaptation effects have been linked specifically to semantic processes and not lower-level

perception. Wagner, Koutstaal, Osimertinib Maril, Schacter, and Buckner (2000) demonstrated buy Etoposide that adaptation occurred in this region of IFG for words that had been previously encountered in a semantic task but did not when the words had been presented previously in a perceptual judgement task. The reduction in IFG activation, when stimuli are repeated, is therefore consistent with a reduction in semantic control demands when the word has already been processed in a semantically congruent context. We found activation in ventral and superior ATL during semantic judgements, which was greater for abstract words. This is consistent with the effects of TMS to this region (Pobric et al., 2009) and the effects of ATL damage in patients with the neurodegenerative syndrome of semantic dementia (Gorno-Tempini et al., 2011, Hoffman and Lambon Ralph, 2011 and Jefferies et al., 2009). Fig. 4 demonstrates the close correspondence between the present results and previous TMS and neuropsychological data. The higher spatial resolution of this distortion-corrected fMRI study allowed us to identify separate activation foci in superior and ventral ATL, with distinct response profiles. A > C activation was observed in sATL as in previous studies of concreteness effects (Binder et al., 2009 and Wang

et al., check details 2010). However, our novel cueing manipulation indicates that the effect in this area has a different basis to that observed in the IFG. While IFG responded maximally under irrelevant cue conditions, sATL activation was greatest when meanings were processed in a coherent context. This suggests, rather than being involved in executive regulation, sATL may play a role in integrating or enriching a word’s meaning based on prior context. sATL is strongly associated with auditory-verbal semantic processing: it shows activation for written and spoken words but not for perceptually-matched non-meaningful stimuli (Scott et al., 2000 and Spitsyna et al., 2006). It has also been linked with combinatorial semantic processing (i.e.

It is a strongly aromatic herb that has been used for centuries as a spice for food and teas; it is used in Mediterranean cooking, mainly as a seasoning for meats and fish as well as in flavoring agents for soups, sausages, AZD5363 molecular weight canned meats and spicy sauces ( Bezbradica et al., 2005, Ćetković et al., 2007, Mastelić and Jerković, 2003, Silva et al., 2009 and Slavkovska et al., 2001). S. montana L. has biological properties related to the presence of its major EO chemical compounds, thymol and carvacrol ( Mirjana and Nada, 2004 and Radonic and Milos, 2003). This study aimed to evaluate the effect

of winter savory (S. montana L.) essential oil (7.80, 15.60 and 31.25 μl/g) on color and lipid oxidation as measured by thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) in mortadella-type sausages formulated with different levels of sodium nitrite (0, 100 selleck chemicals llc and 200 mg/kg) and stored at 25 °C for 30 days. Using the results observed for the evaluated parameters, we aimed to determine the feasibility of reducing the amount of nitrite used in product formulation by adding savory essential oil. Dried aerial parts of winter savory spice (S. montana L.) originating from Albania (a mountainous country in southeastern Europe on the Balkan peninsula, 41° 21′ N and 19° 59′ W, with a Mediterranean climate) were acquired from a spice store (Mr. Josef Herbs and Spices) at the local market in São Paulo (SP, Brazil). The

EO was extracted by hydrodistillation, using a modified Clevenger apparatus. Dry plant material was added to water in a 6 l volumetric distillation flask. The flask was coupled to the modified Clevenger apparatus, and the extraction

was performed for 3 h at 100 ± 5 °C. The obtained hydrolate (water/oil fraction) was centrifuged at 322 g for 10 min at 25 °C. The EO was collected with a Pasteur pipette, and the water traces were removed with anhydrous sodium sulfate. The oil was refrigerated at 5 ± 2 °C in glass flasks wrapped in aluminum foil ( Oliveira, Brugnera, Cardoso, Alves, & Piccoli, 2010). Aerial parts of the winter savory (5 g) were added to 80 ml of cyclohexane in a 250 ml volumetric distillation flask. The flask was coupled to a condenser with a graduated volumetric collector and heated at 100 ± 5 °C for 2 h. After distillation, the volume Aspartate of water in the collector was measured and expressed as the moisture content per 100 g sample. To calculate the yield, 350 g of dry spice was extracted by hydrodistillation, and the resulting EO was quantified. Along with the moisture content measurement, the EO yield for dried plants was obtained (g/100 g) as the moisture-free basis (MFB) (Pimentel et al., 2006). The EO chemical components were identified by gas chromatography with mass spectrometry (GC–MS). A Shimadzu gas chromatograph (model GC 17A) equipped with a mass selective detector (Model QP 5000) was operated under the following conditions: fused silica capillary column (30 m × 0.

These findings taken together with the lack of residual tumor nodules

suggest that axitinib given in conjunction with radiation may mitigate interstitial pneumonia that is caused by the presence of tumor and radiation. The decreased pneumonitis observed by the combined therapy was further supported by histological staining and evaluation of vascular damage in the lung tissue. Pneumonitis has been associated with vascular damage induced by radiation. In the current and previous studies, we observed extensive hemorrhages induced by radiation [31]. Vascular damage plays an important role in the development of radiation-induced pulmonary toxicity and pulmonary hypertension. Fluorescent staining of the basement membrane of vessels showed that radiation caused alterations, interruptions and abnormal projections in the basement membrane of 55% of lung GDC-0980 clinical trial vessels whereas only 36% of vessels were altered in lungs treated with buy MK-2206 axitinib alone or combined with radiation compared to 31% in control lungs. Furthermore, stopping axitinib for

the last 5 weeks of the experiment caused a decrease to 28% damaged vessels. These data suggest that axitinib causes moderate damage to normal lung vessels compared to RT and this effect is reversed by discontinuation of the drug. It is worth noting that axitinib did not exacerbate the damage caused by radiation to the normal vasculature of the lung and therefore axitinib may target more specifically tumor vessels. Pneumonitis and fibrosis have been associated with lung injury induced by radiation. Radiation-induced pneumonitis and fibrosis were documented following single dose or fractionated radiation by 2-4 months after radiation in naïve mice and rats not-bearing lung tumors [46] and [47]. Our recently published studies in the A549 tumor model have shown that pneumonitis and fibrosis are detectable by 1 month after thoracic irradiation at a high dose

of 10Gy or 12 Gy [31] and [32]. As pneumonitis induced by radiation becomes chronic, later time points of 2-4 months after lung irradiation showed both increased pneumonitis and fibrosis in naïve mice [33]. These studies suggest that radiation triggers a process of chronic inflammation Erastin solubility dmso with concurrent progressive development of fibrosis. In the current studies, at 2 months after radiation, prominent fibrosis was observed by increased collagen fibers supporting the vessel walls and bronchial walls which is in agreement with our previous studies. However, in lungs treated with radiation and axitinib, a striking decrease in fibrosis in lung tissue was observed. These data suggest that axitinib inhibits the formation of fibrosis induced by radiation. These intriguing results suggest a mechanism by which the anti-angiogenic drug could interfere with the inflammatory process induced by radiation.

Moreover, not all meteorological variables (in particular, such elements of the land water cycle as evaporation, soil moisture, and moisture fluxes into the soil) are simulated with sufficient

reliability (IPCC 2007). Thus, for example, the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change notes that ‘evaporation fields from the ERA-40 and NRA are not considered reliable because they are not well constrained by precipitation and radiation’. For this reason, the direct use of in situ data for model results validation is more reliable. Moreover, such data are already available for analysis. The Global Soil Moisture Bank (http://climate.envsci.rutgers.edu/soil/_moisture/) (Robock et al. 2000) exists, Ceritinib concentration where data on in situ records of soil moisture have been gathered for Russia, Ukraine, USA, China, Mongolia, Brazil and some other countries for more than 30 years. Pan evaporation is measured worldwide. In some countries (e.g. Russia and the United States) the time series of this variable span more than 40–50 years. It seems appropriate

to set up a World Centre for the accumulation of pan evaporation data (as well as lysimeter data used for monitoring actual evaporation) to make them available to the scientific community (similar to the Global Selleckchem Lenvatinib Soil Moisture Bank). The value of this information has already been tested in climatic change assessments (see Golubev et al. 2001). These variables are not simulated in the reanalyses: soil moisture, potential evaporation and evapotransporation are the most important elements of the terrestrial water cycle. Furthermore, soil moisture characterizes the amount of water accumulating within the active (1 m) soil layer, pan evaporation can be accepted as a potential evaporation estimate, LY294002 and lysimeter measurements from natural surfaces (unfortunately, from a very sparse network) can be used as estimates of evapotranspiration. This paper assesses the changes in the first two characteristics – soil moisture and pan evaporation – as recorded by the network of long-term meteorological stations of the former USSR and subsequently of the Russian Federation, Belarus and the Baltic

States. Quite a large area of the drainage basin of the Baltic Sea lies in Russian territory. Soil moisture observations (from the 1970s to 2000/2001) are currently available from 14 long-term stations in this region. As far as pan evaporation is concerned, there are 4 stations in Russia with observations from the 1950s to 2008 and 8 stations in the former Soviet republics with observations from the 1950s to the mid-1990s; these data are used in this analysis (Figure 1). Soil moisture data are represented by 10-day observations on soil plots with natural (mostly meadows) vegetation and on fields with winter crops during the warm period (from April to August/September). In the cold season, these observations are made on the 18th or 28th day of each month.

, 2009). This trend is set to continue, with general circulation models

predicting particularly rapid warming at polar latitudes (Convey et al., 2009 and Kattenberg et al., 1996). In addition, specific microhabitats, such as the surfaces of rocks and bryophyte clumps, can experience maximum temperatures approaching or exceeding 30 °C (Convey, buy Rapamycin 1996, Everatt et al., 2013 and Smith, 1988). Climate warming may increase the prevalence and duration of these exposures (Bokhorst et al., 2011 and Nielsen and Wall, 2013). The ability of polar terrestrial invertebrates to remain active at high temperatures has only as yet been explored in three continental Antarctic Collembola, and all show a remarkable capacity to remain active above 30 °C (Sinclair et al., 2006). The vast majority of polar terrestrial invertebrates express seasonal and shorter term thermal tolerance strategies to enable survival of shifts in temperature (Cannon et al., 1988, Worland, 2001 and Denlinger and Lee, 2010). However, the ability of polar terrestrial invertebrates to acclimate or acclimatise their thermal activity thresholds is less well known. Only

two polar species, the aphid, Myzus polaris, and the collembolan, Isotoma klovstadi, have been demonstrated to have this ability, with a depression in the CTmin of individuals reared at, or taken from, lower temperatures ( Hazell et al., 2010 and Sinclair et al., 2006). In the current study, the lower and upper thermal activity thresholds are characterised PI3K Inhibitor Library solubility dmso in three common polar invertebrates widely regarded as ‘model’ species in their respective ecosystems: Cryptopygus antarcticus ( Block et al., 2009 and Tilbrook, 1967) and Alaskozetes antarcticus ( Block and Convey, 1995 and Burn, 1986) from the maritime Antarctic, and Megaphorura arctica ( Fjellberg, 1994) from the High Arctic.

In particular, how the thermal activity thresholds of these species respond to acclimation is explored. Summer acclimatised individuals of M. arctica were collected filipin from moss-covered slopes at Krykkefjellet and Stuphallet, near Ny-Ålesund, Spitsbergen, Svalbard (78°55′N, 11°56′E) in August 2011. Summer acclimatised individuals of C. antarcticus and A. antarcticus were collected from moss and algae, and the underside of rocks, on Lagoon Island (67°35′S, 68°16′W) and Léonie Island (67°36′S, 68°21′W), near to Rothera Research Station, Adelaide Island (western Antarctic Peninsula, maritime Antarctic), between January and March 2012. Samples of C. antarcticus and A. antarcticus were held at +4 °C (24:0 L:D) in plastic bags or boxes containing substratum from the sites at which they were found whilst at Rothera Research Station and were used shortly after collection in experiments 2.3, 2.4 and 2.6. These individuals were designated as the “summer acclimatised” group. Following each respective field season, samples of M. arctica, and C. antarcticus and A.