We also observe that certain functional sub-categories, such as enzymes, antibody-heavy-light, antibody-antigen, and enzyme-inhibitors form distinct sub-clusters. The antibody-antigen and enzyme-inhibitors

interfaces have patterns of physical characteristics similar to those of FunCs, which is in agreement with the fact that the selection pressures of these interfaces is differently evolutionarily driven. As such, our ECR model also successfully describes the impact of evolution and natural selection on protein-protein interfaces. HCS assay Finally, we indicate how our ECR method may be of use in reducing the false positive rate of docking calculations.”
“The selective electroless deposition on metallic electrodes of a micro-passive-chip component was investigated. We performed three pretreatments: (a) alkaline degreasing, (b) acid activation, and (c) catalytic activation by the double ML323 alternate-dipping method consisting of two steps, i.e., sensitization (SnCl2) and activation (PdCl2). Catalytic conditions such as the concentration of PdCl2,

activation time, and number of activation times were optimized to achieve the selectivity of electroless deposition. The mechanism of the selectivity of electroless deposition was investigated by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy measurements. Tetravalent Sn and metallic Pd are observed on the inner electrode of the sample. On the other hand, metallic Sn and tetravalent Pd are mainly observed in certain areas except the inner electrode areas. These results see more indicate that the sensitization is performed well in the inner electrode region because Pd must be in a metallic state to validate its catalytic

activity. (C) 2014 The Japan Society of Applied Physics”
“Behavioral bioassays remain a standard tool in the discovery, development, and registration of arthropod repellents. Tick repellent bioassays are generally uncomplicated, but their results can be affected by basic variables (e.g., dimensions of testing materials, substrate, timing, temperature) of the assay. Using lone star tick, Amblyomma americanum (L.), nymphs in climbing bioassays, we tested for the effects of substrate, solvent, and drying time on tick responses. In dose-response tests, the widely used repellents N,N-diethyl-3-methyl benzamide (deet) and 1-methylpropyl-2-(hydroxyethyl)-1-piperidinecarboxylate (picaridin) were applied to filter paper strips and challenged by ticks at 10, 20, 30, 40, and 120 min after application. At 10-min drying time, repellency at the intermediate concentration 500 nmol repellent/cm(2) filter paper was significantly lower for ethanol solutions of deet and picaridin (0 and 10% ticks repelled, respectively) than for solutions of deet and picaridin in acetone (96.7 and 76.7% ticks repelled, respectively).

It is found that, although vesicle size and polydispersity are not significantly altered by the formation of membrane domains, the area fraction occupied by domains depends

on the overall vesicle size. In particular, increasing membrane curvature (i.e., decreasing vesicle size) results in increased area fractions of membrane domains.”
“Vibrio cholerae secretes a large virulence-associated multifunctional autoprocessing RTX toxin ( MARTXVc). Autoprocessing NVP-BSK805 ic50 of this toxin by an embedded cysteine protease domain (CPD) is essential for this toxin to induce actin depolymerization in a broad range of cell types. A homologous CPD is also present in the large clostridial toxin TcdB and recent studies showed Nocodazole mechanism of action that inositol hexakisphosphate (Ins(1,2,3,4,5,6) P6 or InsP6) stimulated the autoprocessing of TcdB dependent upon the CPD ( Egerer, M., Giesemann, T., Jank, T., Satchell, K. J., and Aktories, K. (2007) J. Biol. Chem. 282, 25314-25321). In this work, the autoprocessing activity of the CPD within MARTXVc is similarly found to be inducible by InsP6. The CPD is shown to bind InsP6 ( Kd, 0.6 mu M), and InsP6 is shown to stimulate intramolecular autoprocessing at both physiological concentrations and as low as 0.01 mu M. Processed CPD did not bind InsP6 indicating that, subsequent to cleavage, the activated CPD may shift to an inactive conformation. To further pursue the mechanism of autoprocessing,

conserved residues among 24 identified CPDs were mutagenized. In addition to cysteine and histidine residues that form the catalytic site, 2 lysine residues VX-661 nmr essential for InsP6 binding and 5 lysine and arginine residues resulting in loss of activity at low InsP6 concentrations were identified. Overall, our data support a model in which basic residues located across the CPD structure form an InsP6 binding pocket and that the binding of InsP6 stimulates processing by altering the CPD to an activated conformation. After processing, InsP6 is shown to be

recycled, while the cleaved CPD becomes incapable of further binding of InsP6.”
“BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to find natural spice and herb extracts with antibacterial and antioxidant capacities that could be potentially used as natural preservatives in raw pork.\n\nRESULTS: The inhibitory effects of cinnamon stick, oregano, clove, pomegranate peel and grape seed extracts on Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus and Salmonella enterica were evaluated in raw pork at room temperature (similar to 20 degrees C). The influences of these extracts on lipid oxidation in the meat were also investigated. The pH, colour parameters and TBARS (thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances) values were tested periodically. The results showed that all five natural extracts, especially clove, were effective against the bacteria. During storage the colour parameters of the extract-treated pork samples changed slightly, in comparison with significant changes in the control.

AWLD showed reduced numbers of immature and naive B cells (vs. controls), but higher PB counts of plasmablasts (vs. the other 2 groups). Although PB memory B cells were reduced among the patients, the percentage of surface (s)IgA(+) cells (particularly CD27(-)/sIgA(+) cells) was increased in AH, whereas both sIgG(+) and sIgA(+) memory B cells were Cl-amidine significantly overrepresented in AWLD versus healthy donors. Regarding circulating plasmablasts, patients with AH only showed significantly reduced counts of sIgG(+) cells versus controls. In contrast, the proportion of both sIgA(+) and sIgG(+) plasmablastsfrom all plasmablastswas reduced in AH and increased in AWLD (vs. the other 2 groups). ConclusionsAH

and AWLD patients display a significantly reduced PB B-cell count, at the expense of decreased numbers of recently produced immature/regulatory B cells and naive B cells, together with an increase in Ig-switched memory B lymphocytes and plasmablasts, find more particularly of IgA(+) cells.”
“The cAMP/PKA signalling pathway and transcription factor cAMP response

element-binding protein (CREB) play key roles in long-term memory (LTM) formation. We used two closely related parasitic wasp species, Cotesia glomerata and Cotesia rubecula, which were previously shown to be different in LTM formation, and sequenced at least nine different CREB transcripts in both wasp species. The splicing patterns, functional domains and amino acid sequences were similar VS-4718 concentration to those found in the CREB genes of other organisms. The predicted amino acid sequences of the CREB isoforms were identical in both wasp species. Using real-time quantitative PCR we found that two low abundant CREB transcripts are differentially expressed in the two wasps, whereas the expression levels of high abundant transcripts

are similar.”
“T-cell large granular lymphocytic (LGL) leukemia is a complex diagnosis, requiring persistent clonal expansions of LGLs, and cytopenias. Often the diagnosis is unclear as non-clonal expansions of LGLs commonly occur in reactive conditions. To better understand T-LGL leukemia, we performed a comprehensive clinicopathologic analysis of 85 patients with LGL expansions. Interestingly, distinct CD8 + (dim)/CD57 + populations, seen by flow cytometry, were significantly associated with clonal T-LGL leukemia (P<0.001) as well as neutropenia (median absolute neutrophil count (ANC) 1.45 vs 3.19 x 10(9)/l; P=0.0017). Furthermore, cases with distinct CD8+(dim)/ CD57 + populations and monoclonal T cells had even lower ANCs (median ANC 1.41 x 10(9)/l; P=0.001) compared with cases without these dual criteria. Additionally, complete or partial loss of CD5 expression was independently associated with clonal T-LGL leukemia (P<0.001) and neutropenia (median ANC 1.41 vs 2.70 x 10(9)/l; P=0.002).

The method described could be applied readily for viral biology studies and incorporated into proactive dengue virologic surveillance. (C) 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.”
“BACKGROUND\n\nWe have shown that the ouabain-sensitive alpha 2 Na,K-ATPase is required for adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)-induced hypertension and gestational blood pressure regulation. It is therefore of interest to explore whether this binding site participates in the development of other forms of hypertension, such as deoxycorticosterone

acetate (DOCA)-salt using mutant mice with altered sensitivity to ouabain.\n\nMETHODS\n\nWild-type (alpha 1 ouabain-resistant, alpha 2 ouabain-sensitive: a(R/R)a(S/S)), alpha 1-resistant, alpha 2-resistant (a1(R/R)a2(R/R)) and alpha 2-sensitive, a2-resistant (a1(S/S)a2(R/R)) mice were uninephrectomized and implanted with DOCA pellets. The animals LY2835219 mouse were given either tap water or 1% NaCl, and blood pressure was measured before and after DOCA.\n\nRESULTS\n\nDOCA-salt-treated a1(R/R)a2(R/R)

mice developed hypertension to the same extent as a1(R/R)a2S mice (wild type), and the a1(S/S)a2(R/R) mice given DOCA-salt also showed no difference from the other two genotypes. The expression of the a1 isoform was not changed by DOCA-salt treatment in selleck compound either a1(R/R)a2(S/S) or a1(R/R)a2(R/R) mice. However, the a2 subunit was expressed at substantially higher levels in the hearts of a1(R/R)a2(R/R) than a1(R/R)a2(S/S) mice, regardless of treatment. Plasma levels of ouabain did not change consistently, but those of marinobufagenin

were modestly Selleck MK-5108 higher in DOCA-salt treated mice relatively to those without salt.\n\nCONCLUSIONS\n\nThe ouabain-binding site of either the al or alpha 2 Na,K-ATPase subunit does not play an essential role in the development of DOCA-salt hypertension in this mouse model. These findings indicate that the underlying mechanisms of hypertension induced by DOCA-salt treatment are different from those of ACTH-induced hypertension.”
“Background and purpose: This study was designed to review the diagnostic performance of iodine-123-metaiodobenzylguanidine (MIBG) scintigraphy in differential diagnosis between Parkinson’s disease (PD) and multiple-system atrophy (MSA).\n\nMethods: A comprehensive computer literature search of studies published through March 2011 regarding MIBG scintigraphy in patients with PD and MSA was performed in PubMed/MEDLINE and Embase databases. Only studies in which MIBG scintigraphy was performed for differential diagnosis between PD and MSA were selected. Pooled sensitivity and specificity a MIBG scintigraphy were presented with a 95% confidence interval (Cl). The area under the ROC curve was calculated to measure the accuracy of MIBG scintigraphy in differential diagnosis between PD and MSA.

Using the delocalization

and charge transfer descriptors, we obtain all couplings between these three states. Our results are important in the context of DNA photophysics, since the calculated couplings can be used to parametrize effective Hamiltonians to model extended DNA stacks. Our calculations Selleckchem Pexidartinib also suggest that the 5′-purine-pyrimidine-3′ sequence favors the formation of charge transfer excited states. (C) 2014 AIP Publishing LLC.”
“Human detection is a significant and challenging task with applications in various domains. In real-time systems, the speed of detection is crucial to the performance of system, while the accuracy is also taken into consideration. In this work, a human detection approach based on Histograms of Oriented Gradients (HOG) feature and differential evolution (DE), termed as HOG-SVM-DE, is proposed to achieve both fast and accurate detection. The proposed method considers the problem of locating an objective detection window as a search problem, and speeds up the detection stage by solving the search problem with DE. DE is chosen as the optimizer as it is characterized by fast and global convergence. The proposed system trains only one linear-SVM, and allows tradeoffs between the detection rate and the detection

time to satisfy different applications by simply tuning one parameter. Experiments are conducted on a set of images from the INRIA Person Dataset, and the results validate that the proposed HOG-SVM-DE is promising in terms of both speed and accuracy. (C) 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.”
“Background IgE binds to mast cells and basophils via

its high-affinity AZD1480 supplier receptor, Epigenetics inhibitor Fc epsilon RI, and cross-linking of Fc epsilon RI-bound IgE molecules by allergen leads to the release of allergic mediators characteristic of type I hypersensitivity reactions. Previous work has shown that cross-linking of Fc epsilon RI with Fc gamma RIIb, an ITIM-containing IgG receptor, leads to inhibition of basophil triggering. 2G10, a chimeric human IgG1 anti-idiotype, has broad reactivity with human IgE and as such has the potential to bind simultaneously to Fc epsilon RI-bound IgE, via its Fab regions, and the negative regulatory receptor, Fc gamma RIIb, via its Fc region.\n\nObjective To assess the ability of human 2G10 to inhibit anti-IgE and allergen-driven basophil degranulation through cross-linking of Fc epsilon RI-bound IgE with Fc gamma RIIb.\n\nMethods 2G10 was assessed for its ability to bind to Fc gamma RIIb on transfected cells and on purified basophils. In the basophil degranulation assay, basophils were purified from peripheral blood of atopic individuals and activated with either anti-IgE or the house dust mite allergen Der p 1, in the presence or absence of human 2G10. Basophil activation was quantified by analysis of CD63 and CD203c expression on the cell surface, and IL-4 expression intracellularly, using flow cytometery.

\n\nRESULTS. Eighty-nine of 94 patients underwent one percutaneous drainage procedure and 5 of 94 patients underwent two drainages for a total of 99 drainages

in 94 patients (one drainage [n = 89] and two drainages [n = 5]). There were 62 men and 32 women with a mean age of 58.5 years (age range [+/- SD], 22.3-88.0 +/- 16 years). The abscess diameters ranged from 1.8 to 13 cm (mean, 5.3 +/- 2.5 cm), volume aspirated ranged from 0 to 200 mL (mean, 45 +/- 44 mL), and mean duration of drainage was 16.2 days (range, 2-110 +/- 18.7 days). The iliopsoas muscle was the most common site of drainage, accounting for 87.8% of the total. Catheter insertion was possible in all patients, with the muscular component successfully drained in 82% (81/99) overall: 85% (46/54) of those with muscle involvement alone and 77% CH5183284 (35/45) of those with musculoskeletal collections. Catheter drainage and antibiotic administration resulted in 65.6% (65/99) not requiring any surgical intervention and resolution of abnormal white cell count or fevers in 98.8% (79/80) of those with abnormal parameters before treatment. Skeletal infection was associated with increased risk of drainage failure (p = 0.0001).\n\nCONCLUSION. Percutaneous imaging-guided musculoskeletal drainage is clinically useful, safe, and effective for draining complex musculoskeletal

collections. It is highly effective for draining collections Selleck SNX-5422 AL3818 supplier involving muscle alone; however, skeletal infection is associated with a higher risk of drain failure.”
“Objectives This review discusses the limitations and applications of the everted gut sac model in studying drug absorption, metabolism, and interaction.\n\nKey findings The mechanism of drug absorption,

interaction and the effect of factors such as age, sex, species, chronic therapy, and disease state on drug absorption have been summarized. The experimental conditions and their effects on the outcomes of trials have been discussed also.\n\nSummary The everted sac model is an efficient tool for studying in-vitro drug absorption mechanisms, intestinal metabolism of drugs, role of transporter in drug absorption, and for investigating the role of intestinal enzymes during drug transport through the intestine.”
“The rapid growth of infant brains places an exceptionally high demand on the supply of nutrients from the diet, particularly for preterm infants. Sialic acid (Sia) is an essential component of brain gangliosides and the polysialic acid (polySia) chains that modify neural cell adhesion molecules (INCAM). Sia levels are high in human breast milk, predominately as N-acetylneuraminic acid (Neu5Ac). In contrast, infant formulas contain a low level of Sia consisting of both Neu5Ac and N-glycolylneuraminic acid (Neu5Gc). Neu5Gc is implicated in some human inflammatory diseases.

Phylogenetic

analysis of ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 sequences yielded two Tulasnella clades. In four cases, selleck chemical plants were found to be associated with both clades. The difference between univariate and bivariate K functions was consistent with the random labeling null model at all spatial scales, indicating that trees hosting clades A and B of Tulasnella are not spatially segregated. The analysis of the inhomogenous K function showed that host trees are not clustered, suggesting no limitations to population-scale dispersal. chi(2) analysis of contingency tables showed that E. rhopalostele is more frequent on dead trees than expected.\n\nConclusions: Epidendrum rhopalostele establishes mycorrhizal associations with at least two different Tulasnella species. The analysis of the distribution patterns of this orchid suggests a microsite preference for dead trees and no seed dispersal limitation.”
“We examined how differences in activity among individual foragers

of the red harvester ant, Pogonomyrmex selleck inhibitor barbatus, could arise from site fidelity. Using observations of individually marked foragers, we found that each day most foragers made a few foraging trips, whereas only a few foragers made many trips. To determine whether only particular individuals are capable of high foraging activity, we removed the foragers that made the most foraging trips on 1 day and examined the frequency distribution of foraging the subsequent day. The most active foragers were replaced by other individuals. We then examined site fidelity of foragers. Though foraging trails extend up to 20 m from the nest, ABT-263 ic50 observations of marked individuals showed that on successive trips, a forager returns to sites within about 0.5 m. Foraging trip duration depended on search time and not on the distance from the nest of the final destination. Thus, the more food available, the shorter the search time and the shorter the trip. Because foragers return to the same site over and over within a

day, a forager making many short trips to a high-quality patch can make more foraging trips per day. Thus, variation in patch quality, rather than individual variation in foraging ability, could produce the observed distribution of trip number. These results show that regulation of foraging in harvester ants does not require any individuals to show others a particular location with abundant food. Instead, a decentralized system of interactions tunes the numbers foraging to current food availability.”
“Objective. To analyse the effect of a 24-week physical training programme in water and on land on women with fibromyalgia. Methods. A controlled study was conducted from December 2009 to May 2010. Seventy-two women with fibromyalgia (age: 51.79 +/- 7.87 years) were assigned to an exercise group (3 sessions/week, 2 sessions in water, I session on land) (n=42) and to a control group (n=30).

CONCLUSION: NCT-501 mw GSP possesses antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, and antiapoptotic effects by relieving endoplasmic reticulum stress through regulation of related signaling pathways to protect the liver against IR injury.”
“Non-lethal stress treatments (X-radiation or heat shock) administered to Drosophila imaginal discs induce massive apoptosis, which may eliminate more that 50% of the cells. Yet the discs are able to recover to form final structures of

normal size and pattern. Thus, the surviving cells have to undergo additional proliferation to compensate for the cell loss. The finding that apoptotic cells ectopically express dpp and wg suggested that ectopic Dpp/Wg signalling might be responsible for compensatory proliferation. We have tested this hypothesis by analysing the response to irradiation-induced apoptosis of disc compartments that are mutant for dpp, for wg, or for both. We find that there is compensatory proliferation in these compartments, indicating that the ectopic Dpp/Wg signalling generated by apoptotic cells is not involved. However, we demonstrate that this ectopic Dpp/Wg signalling is responsible for the hyperplastic overgrowths that appear when apoptotic (‘undead’) cells

are kept alive with the caspase inhibitor P35. We also show that the ectopic Dpp/Wg signalling and the overgrowths caused by undead cells are due to a non-apoptotic function of the JNK pathway. We propose that the compensatory growth is simply a homeostatic response Fludarabine of wing compartments, which resume growth after massive cellular loss until Selonsertib they reach the

final correct size. The ectopic Dpp/Wg signalling associated with apoptosis is inconsequential in compartments with normal apoptotic cells, which die soon after the stress event. In compartments containing undead cells, the adventitious Dpp/Wg signalling results in hyperplastic overgrowths.”
“KAI1 COOH-terminal interacting tetraspanin (KITENIN) contributes to tumor invasion and metastasis in various cancers. The aim of current study was to evaluate whether KITENIN affects tumor cell invasion and prognosis in human colorectal cancers. We investigated the biologic role of KITENIN on tumor cell invasion by using small interfering RNA in Caco2, DLD1, and SW480. We evaluated the expression of KITENIN and activator protein-1 (AP-1) target genes in human colorectal cancer tissues. The tumor cell invasion was decreased by knockdown of KITENIN in three tested cell lines. The mRNA expression of cyclin D1 and COX-2 was decreased in KITENIN knockdown Caco2 and the mRNA expression of MMP-3 and COX-2 was decreased in KITENIN knockdown DLD1 and SW480. The extracellular-signal protein kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) phosphorylation was decreased in KITENIN knockdown in three tested cell lines. Expression of KITENIN and AP-1 target genes was significantly increased in human colorectal cancer tissues.

Recombination click here introduced an excess of non-synonymous diversity in general

and even more in genes expected to be under positive or diversifying selection, e.g., cell wall component genes. Mutations leading to non-synonymous SNPs are effectively purged in MTBC., which shows dominance of purifying selection. MTBC mutation bias toward AT nucleotides is not compensated by biased gene conversion, suggesting the action of natural selection also on synonymous changes. Together, all of these observations point to a strong imprint of recombination and selection in the genome affecting both non-synonymous and synonymous positions. Hence, contrary to some other pathogens and previous proposals concerning M. tuberculosis, this lineage may have come out of its ancestral LY3023414 price bottleneck as a very successful pathogen that is rapidly diversifying by the action of mutation, recombination, and natural selection.”
“The kidney transplant is the main therapeutic alternative for end-stage kidney disease, and rejection is a major complication. The expression of proinflammatory cytokines is related to graft loss, whereas anti-inflammatory cytokines are associated with graft protection. The

objective of this study is to evaluate the “in situ” expression of cytokines T helper 1 (tumor necrosis factor alpha [TNF-alpha]). T helper 17 (interleukin 17 [IL-17]), and regulatory T cell (transforming growth factor beta [TGF-beta]) and the expression of forkhead box P3 (FoxP3) in allograft kidney. We evaluated in situ expression of cytokines in allograft kidney under rejection process by indirect immunohistochemistry.

Eighteen renal graft biopsies were from patients with episodes of rejection. The in situ expression of IL-17, TNF-alpha, and TGF-beta was significantly higher in patients with acute rejection when compared with the control group. In contrast, analysis of FoxP3 expression showed few positive cells Geneticin cell line in patients with acute rejection compared with the control group. The results suggest that the expression of proinflammatory cytokines (IL-17 and TNF-alpha) contributes to the mechanisms of kidney transplant rejection. The increase in TGF-beta expression might be an attempt to establish a process of immunoregulation or even to induce higher production of IL-17. The last hypothesis is supported by the observation of a reduced expression of FoxP3 and elevated levels of IL-17. (C) 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.”
“Background\n\nItraconazole is recommended for treatment of blastomycosis in dogs. Some evidence suggests that fluconazole might be less hepatotoxic than itraconazole.\n\nObjectives\n\nTo compare (1) incidence of clinical remission and death; (2) treatment duration; (3) total drug cost; (4) incidence of relapse; and (5) incidence of increased ALT activities in dogs with blastomycosis treated with fluconazole or itraconazole.

We found that Hsp31 displays glyoxalase activity that catalyses the conversion of methylglyoxal (MG) to D-lactate without an additional cofactor. The glyoxalase activity was completely abolished in the hchA-deficient strain, confirming the relationship between the hchA gene and its enzymatic activity in vivo. Hsp31 exhibits Michaelis-Menten kinetics for substrates MG with K(m) and k(cat) of PXD101 1.43 +/-

0.12 mM and 156.9 +/- 5.5 min(-1) respectively. The highest glyoxalase activity was found at 35-40 degrees C and pH of 6.0-8.0, and the activity was significantly inhibited by Cu(2+), Fe(3+) and Zn(2+). Mutagenesis studies based on our evaluation of conserved catalytic residues revealed that the Cys-185 and Glu-77 were essential for catalysis, whereas His-186 was less crucial for enzymatic function, although it participates in the catalytic process. The stationary-phase Escherichia coli cells became more susceptible to MG when hchA was deleted,

which was complemented by an expression of plasmid-encoded hchA. Furthermore, an accumulation of intracellular MG was observed in hchA-deficient strains.”
“Vigilance behaviour is often viewed as a predation avoidance strategy, but animals also use visual monitoring to detect conspecific threats. Studies of social vigilance often consider buy URMC-099 how group size or nearby conspecifics influence vigilance levels. Less is known about how more specific social variables, such as relative rank and kinship of a subject’s neighbours, affect vigilance of wild animals along with predation risk. To evaluate alternative functional hypotheses for vigilance behaviour, including predator detection and both extra-and within-group conspecific monitoring, we investigated how predation risk and social factors account for variation in vigilance in wild blue monkeys, Cercopithecus mitis, which show strong aggressive competition between Epacadostat mw groups and mild aggression within them. Studying 18 adult females in two groups, we measured time spent vigilant in 90 s focal samples, recording the subject’s activity, microhabitat

conditions and identity of neighbours. We used data on dominance ranks and kinship to assess subject-specific social context for each sample. We compared generalized linear mixed models corresponding to each hypothesized function of vigilance, relating variation in vigilance to factors associated with a particular function. The best model related vigilance to predictor variables of all three functions, including recency of an antipredator event, height in canopy, position in forest (edge/interior), recency of an intergroup encounter, number of nearby kin, subject rank and presence of high-ranking neighbours. Overall, most variation in vigilance related to predation risk and between-group competition, while within-group social factors had smaller effects.