This psychophysiological regression provided parameter estimates for the two modulatory terms: (1) the strength of the multiplicative modulation of the decision weight assigned to element k, and (2) MAPK Inhibitor Library research buy the strength of the additive modulation of response bias. A nonzero parameter estimate for the multiplicative modulation term indicates that the physiological

signal modulates the contribution of the corresponding decision update on choice. By contrast, a nonzero parameter estimate for the additive modulation term indicates that the physiological signal biases responses toward either the cardinal or diagonal category irrespective of the corresponding decision update. We first used this psychophysiological modulatory approach to investigate whether trial-to-trial variability in the neural encoding of DUk at parietal electrodes modulated the decision weight wk assigned to element k in the eventual choice. To address this question, we applied the approach described above by taking as physiological variable the trial-to-trial encoding residuals from DUk at parietal electrodes, calculated at each electrode and each time from 0 to 600 ms following the onset of element k. Obeticholic Acid We then extended this analysis to temporally adjacent elements in the stream by including not only the interaction between encoding residuals from element k and DUk but also

the interaction Isotretinoin between encoding residuals from element k and adjacent decision updates DUk−1 and DUk+1. We also applied this psychophysiological modulatory approach to phase φ of EEG oscillations, a circular quantity defined between −π and π. We took into account the notion that φ is a complex-valued physiological variable by performing separate real-valued psychophysiological analyses for sin(φ) and for cos(φ), and by recovering

the strength of the modulation and the corresponding preferred phase using the quadratic pair relationship. When assessing how trial-to-trial fluctuations in lateralized beta-band activity at motor electrodes influenced the subsequent choice, we acknowledged that beta-band activity did not encode successive decision updates discretely and transiently as observed in broadband signals at parietal electrodes, but rather in a cumulative ramping-up fashion, and used the encoding residuals from the running decision variable—i.e., the cumulative sum of individual updates up to element k—rather than the encoding residuals from DUk in isolation. The neural encoding and decoding analyses described above were performed separately for each participant and each element. At the group level, we used standard parametric tests (e.g., paired t tests and repeated-measures ANOVAs) to assess the statistical significance of observed effects across the group.