Oxidative stress responses were also seen in a neuronal cell line after in vitro exposure Selleck PD173074 to LUDOX® AS-20 and AM at ≥100 ppm, but not after treatment with the positively charged LUDOX® CL up to the highest tested concentration of 500 ppm ( Kim et al., 2010). Only with the smallest particles (30 nm) the redox potential of cells (GSH) was reduced significantly at concentrations of 50 ppm or higher. Particles larger than 30 nm showed no changes in GSH levels, nor was there ROS formation ( Yu et al., 2009). Ye et al. (2010a) reported that colloidal silica particles (primary particle sizes of 21 and
48 nm, 100–1600 ppm) caused oxidative stress, induced G1 phase arrest and upregulated
levels of p53 and p21 in H9c2(2-1) cells. An increase in IL-8, a key factor in neutrophil chemotaxis was found in vitro in primary human lung fibroblasts ( O’Reilly et al., 2005) and in endothelial cells by Peters and co-workers ( Peters et al., 2004). O’Reilly et al. (2005) found that crystalline and amorphous silica differentially regulated the cyclooxygenase-prostaglandin pathway. In primary human pulmonary fibroblasts, amorphous silica had the ability to directly upregulate the early inflammatory mediator COX-2, the prostaglandin E (PGE) synthase and the downstream antifibrotic mediator PGE2. Precipitated SAS MEK inhibitor clinical trial has been shown to increase the production of macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-2 cytokines in primary rat alveolar macrophages (Sayes et al., 2007). Also in the immortalised alveolar type II tumour cell line MLE15, a dose-dependent increased expression Diflunisal of MIP-2 was found after 24 h of incubation with SAS (Aerosil 200) (Singal, 2010 and Singal and Finkelstein, 2005). The increase in MIP-2 protein was partly caused by an increase in ROS generation as it was shown that MIP-2 production was inhibited
by the addition of antioxidants. The silica particles also induced inflammatory gene expression through the activation of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) and activator protein 1 (AP-1) via the mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase pathway. In addition, NF-E2-related factor (Nrf)-2 and HO-1 protein expression were influenced by incubation of MLE15 cells with Aerosil 200. The inflammatory protein expression was delayed as compared to the time course observed with a soluble pro-inflammatory stimulus. The induction of HO-1 via NF-κ B and Nrf2, as well as the extracellular signal-related kinase (ERK) MAP kinase signal transduction pathway were also observed by Eom and Choi (2009) in a human bronchial epithelial cell line exposed to pyrogenic and porous silica particles. Cells exposed to porous silica particles showed a more sensitive response than those exposed to pyrogenic silica.