Maximal inflammation was more than twice as extensive Palbociclib purchase in the OPN-deficient mandibles as in the WT tissues.

The pro-inflammatory molecules known as IL-1 (comprising both IL-1α and IL-1β) are responsible for much of the pathology in these periapical infections25 and can mediate osteoclast activation and function.26 We used qPCR to evaluate the effect of OPN deficiency on IL-1 expression in the periapical lesions. Interleukin-1α, but not IL-1β, was significantly increased in lesions from OPN-deficient mice compared with WT mice at early times after infection (Fig. 3a). Consistent with the increased bone loss seen in these animals, RANKL expression was also increased in OPN-deficient mice. By 21 days, however, there were no significant differences in the expression of these cytokines between the two genotypes (Fig. 3b). The number of osteoclasts was greatly elevated in the periapical region of infected mice at 3 days after infection, as compared with control, unexposed animals. However, the number of osteoclasts in these areas was not different between WT and OPN-deficient animals (Fig. 3c). This is consistent with the similar extent learn more of bone loss in the WT and OPN-deficient mice at this time-point.

Together these results suggest that OPN acts to enhance the bone loss seen at later times, which reflects the increased bone resorption between 3 and 21 days after infection. Osteopontin has been associated with the Th1 response, which is known to exacerbate inflammation-associated bone loss in our endodontic infection model.27 It can also suppress the expression of IL-10,9 which has an anti-inflammatory role

in these infections.28 To assess the effect of OPN on the Th1/Th2 response in these infections, the serological response of infected animals to bacterial infection was determined 3 weeks after infection. Levels of IgG1 and IgG2a, were determined Doxacurium chloride in sera from infected mice by ELISA using F. nucleatum as antigen: this species has been shown previously to elicit a strong immune response.7 The ratio of the expression of these isoforms reflects the Th1/Th2 balance, such that IGg2a ≥ IgG1 indicates a Th1 bias, whereas lower IgG2a suggests a Th2 polarization.24,29 In WT mice, the humoral immune response to this species included both IgG1 and IgG2a, although the titre of IgG2a was somewhat higher, perhaps reflecting a Th1 bias. There were no significant changes in either IgG1 or IgG2a levels in the absence of OPN (Fig. 4a), suggesting that there is no alteration in the Th1/Th2 polarization in these lesions in the absence of OPN. This idea is supported by analysis of messenger RNA (mRNA) levels for a series of cytokines in the periapical lesions at 21 days after infection. While OPN has been reported to enhance IL-12 expression and suppress IL-10,9 IL-12, IL-10 and IFN-γ mRNA levels were similar in both WT and OPN-deficient mice (Fig. 4b).