Additionally, the impaired respiratory functioning associated with smoking such as wheezing and shortness of breath (Moore, Augustson, Moser, & Budney, 2005) and the anxiogenic effects of sustained nicotine intake can give rise to symptoms of anxiety selleck (Pine et al., 2000; West & Hajek, 1997). Smokers may also experience greater difficulties in social relationships because of their smoking. As smoking continues to become less acceptable, smokers experience an increase in negative reactions to their smoking. This may create actual conflict in relationships or increase smokers�� perceptions of conflict. Woolf, Rothemich, Johnson, and Marsland (1999) also found that smokers reported lower levels of social functioning and role functioning than did nonsmokers.

Furthermore, higher levels of smoking are associated with indices of poor psychological well-being, such as reporting lower levels of life satisfaction and failing to make transitions to adult roles (e.g., getting married; Chassin, Presson, Pitts, & Sherman, 2000; Nystedt, 2006). An important finding of this research was that stricter rules about smoking in the home were related to fewer psychological symptoms and psychological well-being via engaging in a healthy lifestyle, including exercise, a healthful diet, and getting enough sleep. This relationship suggests the existence of a ��generalization effect�� of attitudes and behaviors toward health, whereby becoming aware of the health benefits of one behavior (here, restricting smoking in one’s home) may ��spill over�� into other areas of one’s life (Perkins et al.

, 1993; Unger, 1996). ��Individuals in the process of improving one health behavior may be more receptive to information about health and more willing to change their attitudes and behaviors relative to another domain of health�� (Unger, 1996, p. 134). Living in a smoke-free environment with clear antismoking rules may give rise to a greater awareness about health issues among smokers and nonsmokers alike. This awareness may encompass not only the benefits of refraining from tobacco use but also the health benefits of engaging in exercise, adhering to a healthy diet, and sleeping an adequate number of hours every night. The relationship between exercise, good nutrition, and sleep and better psychological adjustment has been demonstrated repeatedly.

Numerous investigators have shown that a healthy lifestyle, incorporating regular exercise, sufficient sleep, Dacomitinib and healthy nutrition, is related to fewer symptoms of psychological distress (De Moor et al., 2006; Dunn et al., 2005; Tsuno, Besset, & Ritchie, 2005). In particular, many studies have shown that exercise is related to lower levels of depressive symptoms (e.g., Dunn et al., 2005; Nabkasorn et al., 2005). A healthy lifestyle is also associated with greater psychological well-being (e.g., self-esteem and life satisfaction; Rejeski & Mihalko, 2001; Spence et al., 2005).