Genetic fingerprinting enables unambiguous assignment of parentage, mating system and the kin structure of groups, all of which are essential in understanding and interpreting behaviour and testing the original hypotheses of Hamilton and others (Burke et al., 1991; Ross, 2001). The new field of sociogenomics, underpinned by next generation sequencing technologies, seeks to utilize the growing numbers of whole genome datasets now available to find candidate genes associated with

particular behaviours. As a result, the genetic basis of even complex mammalian behaviour is being revealed (Robinson, 2004; Robinson, Grozinger & Whitfield, 2005; Robinson, Fernald & Clayton, 2008). Can any of these modern methodologies be CP-868596 molecular weight brought to bear on the fossil record? In most cases, probably FDA approved Drug Library solubility dmso not directly, but they can certainly allow a more informed interpretation and offer the possibilities

of reconstructing ancestral gene and protein sequences (e.g. Chang, Ugalde & Matz, 2005). Taking a likelihood-based phylogenetic approach, Chang et al. (2002) recreated the sequence and then synthesized and tested a functional ancestral archosaur visual pigment (for a node dated within the Early Triassic Period). From this, they were able to show that their hypothesized ancestral pigment had an absorption maximum that was shifted towards the red end of the electromagnetic spectrum in relation to mammals and fish, but at the higher end of the range of that reported for birds and reptiles. Although behavioural inferences are not drawn from this data, it is a good example of what is possible and could be applied to make functional predictions from genes known to affect behaviour. Within the emerging field of

ancient genomics, the latest technologies are being applied to sequence and analyze the tiny quantities of degraded DNA that may persist in some sub-fossils (Lambert & Millar, 2006; Millar et al., 2008). A good example of Molecular motor the use of this data to make inferences about behaviour is the Neanderthal genome project. Comparison of the Neanderthal, human and chimpanzee genomes has enabled regions subjected to positive selection and selective sweeps to be identified. Some of the loci that differ between humans and Neanderthals contain genes involved in cognition, and supports recent work by Pearce, Stringer & Dunbar (2013) suggesting Neanderthals had different cognitive abilities and behaved differently to contemporary early modern humans. This study used a comparative morphometric approach measuring orbital volume, and concluded that Neanderthals had larger visual systems and reduced endocranial capacities relative to body size. As a consequence of this different organization of the brain, it is hypothesized that Neanderthals compromised their social cognition and behaved differently to early modern humans.