However, standard sodium lactate panic is not an apt panic model in Sotrastaurin concentration healthy subjects, because, as already mentioned, in contrast to patients with panic disorder, only a small percentage of healthy humans develop panic symptoms to it. Interestingly, Sinha et al36 investigated, in a single-blind pilot study, whether additional pretreatment with naloxone, an opioid receptor antagonist, could render healthy controls who are nonresponsive

to panic induction by lactate infusion sensitive Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical to the latter panicogen. Indeed, substantial increases in the API scores were displayed by 8 out of 12 subjects during such treatment; naloxone alone did not result in panic symptoms. In a following more sophisticated investigation in 25 volunteers (using a crossover, randomized design) further evidence was shown that impairment of the endogenous opioid system by naloxone accentuates symptomatic response to lactate, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical but no significant differences in API ratings were detected.37 Notwithstanding, the authors suggest testing the specificity of the naloxone-lactate model Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical in healthy man comparing specific anti-panic medications with ineffective anti-panic agents, and furthermore screening for putative anti-panic Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical agents

with this method. Further studies will demonstrate whether this complex model is applicable for translational panic research in healthy humans. Panic provocation in healthy volunteers is more feasible using CCK-4 or carbon dioxide. The further discourse will be restricted to these

two panicogens, because we are not aware of any published studies testing anti-panic drugs in normal volunteer challenge Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical studies using other substances. Although patients with panic disorder show an enhanced sensitivity to intravenous bolus injection of CCK-4, increasing its dose brings about a substantial panic-like reaction Ketanserin also in normal controls. While the panic rate after injection of 25 μg was 91% for patients and only 17% for controls, 50 μg of CCK-4 induced a fullblown panic attack in 100% of patients and in a sizable 47% of controls.38 Among healthy volunteers significant dose-related differences were also found for the number of panic symptoms and their sum intensity,39 which makes CCK-4 a useful research model for dimensional aspects of panic also in the nonclinical subjects who do not develop a full-blown panic attack.40 Also, with a single breath of 35% carbon dioxide inhalation panic patients show significantly stronger symptoms of panic anxiety than normal controls.