2 ± 0.1 ms; n = 7). The cholinergic EPSC was reduced to 17% ± 3% (n = 3) of the control amplitude in Vglut2-KO mice by mecamylamine (Figures 2B and 2C), Entinostat in vitro similar to what was seen in wild-type animals when the glutamatergic component was blocked (Nishimaru et al., 2005). Moreover,

in control mice, recordings from MNs displayed antidromically induced compound EPSCs involving cholinergic and glutamatergic fractions, similar to what has been described in wild-type mice (Nishimaru et al., 2005). In contrast, this glutamatergic fraction was absent in recordings from motor neurons in Vglut2-KO mice (n = 2; data not shown). During intracellular recordings from ventrally located neurons in the rostral lumbar cord (L2) of control mice (Figure 2E, left), stimulation of ipsilateral caudal segments elicited both EPSPs and IPSPs in the recorded neurons. The IPSPs were often obscured by EPSPs and were only revealed after blocking the EPSPs (Figure 2E, right). Stimulus-evoked EPSPs were seen in all ventrally recorded neurons in control mice (n = 22). Similar recordings in Vglut2-KO mice showed conserved stimulus-evoked IPSPs but a total lack of stimulus-evoked EPSPs (Figure 2F; n = 7). Stimulation of the ventral funiculus in the caudal spinal cord (L6-S1) leads to glutamatergic excitation

of motor neurons Oxalosuccinic acid in more rostral Docetaxel research buy segments on the same side (e.g., L2 and L5) (Figure S2B). This excitation was absent in Vglut2-KO mice (Figure S2C; n = 3). We further tested whether release was blocked from Vglut2-positive neurons that have fibers projecting toward or into the spinal cord. For this we obtained crosses that were Vglut2 deficient and carried a BAC transgene expressing channelrhodopsin2-YFP in cells that normally express Vglut2 (Hägglund et al., 2010). In Vglut2-proficient BAC-Vglut2-ChR2-YFP mice,

lumbar locomotor-like activity can be induced by blue light stimulation of Vglut2-expressing reticulospinal neurons in the brainstem or propriospinal neurons in the upper cervical spinal cord. Similar light stimulation in Vglut2-KO::BAC-Vglut2-ChR2-YFP mice was unable to evoke a response in the lumbar spinal cord (Figure 2G; n = 5/5), although YFP-positive cells were indeed activated by light (Figure 2H). Direct light stimulation of the spinal cord that effectively evoked locomotor-like activity in BAC-Vglut2-ChR2-YFP Vglut2-proficient mice (Hägglund et al., 2010) was also unable to induce rhythmic activity in Vglut2-KO::BAC-Vglut2-ChR2-YFP (data not shown). These results show that the Vglut2-KO mice display a specific loss of the stimulus-evoked Vglut2-mediated glutamate release.